SOCIOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL
In addition to the numerous assemblages of nations, or groups from different nations, for reasons having economic bases, there have also been many instances wherein two or more countries, or organizations therefrom have joined together, or otherwise interacted, in the interest of some sociological or humanitarian purpose or cause.
As long ago as 1894, athletic interests from a number of nations met together to form the beginnings of the International Olympic Committee. It has eventually come to represent over 125 countries, and to oversee the Summer and Winter Olympic Games which are regularly held in various parts of the world. The Olympics is one shining example of friendly and sportsmanlike encounters among persons from all over the world, as participants and as audiences, wherein there is sought only excellence and victory in a sporting event.
In addition to gatherings for the purpose of sponsoring and holding international athletic contests, many other early meetings were organized for the purpose of improving conditions for certain peoples within our world. For example, as early as 1900, an international fund was conceived, and applied toward attempts to eradicate hunger in the Indian subcontinent. And, in September, 1906, an international conference concerning protection and benefits for the workers of the world opened in Berne, Switzerland.
In 1910, with the particular help of one Jean Henri Durant, a Swiss philanthropist, an international conference was convened which resulted in the formation of the Red Cross. This is another worthy organization whose activities routinely cross national borders, attempting only to assist people and populations during times of crisis.
An assemblage from a number of nations, calling itself the "U.N. Food Conference," met in Virginia for the first time in 1943, to discuss and implement details for a hoped-for and anticipated equitable worldwide distribution of critical food resources after the conclusion of World War II.
Sometimes communications between nations having social consequences has consisted only of the policy makers of one nation rendering assistance to needful persons from somewhere else.
For example, in the early part of 1947, Great Britain gave shelter and employment to 20,000 dependent women from German refugee camps. This token of assistance on Britain's partwas not without its reward for the grantor as well: for it helped allay the labor shortage caused by the casualties of World War II which beset Britain after the War's termination.
In 1949, the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions was founded Still functioning, its purpose is to promote and safeguard the interests of working people the world over; and it has affiliated trade unions in approximately one hundred countries. Its headquarters are in Brussels.
Other things having social significance happened in 1949 as well. That year, after Russia had imposed a blockade in Germany, the United States and Great Britain joined together to inaugurate and operate the famous "air lift." This noble undertaking resulted in an airplane landing behind the Russian blockade approximately once each minute, for almost a year. In doing so, these two allied nations delivered many tons of needed supplies into Berlin during this period.
In November, 1974, a World Food Conference wqas convened in Rome. It was held for the purpose of seeking and implementing international measures to eradicate hunger and malnutrition throughout our world. The need to help increase food production in developing countries, via increased assistance by the rest of the world, was the focal point. An annual food aid target was set as a way to measure accomplishment of the Conference's goals.
In July, 1985, ten thousand gathered in Nairobi, Kenya, on the occasion of an international parley concerning women's rights. A similar ambition fostered the calling of a World Conference on Women, which opened in Beijing in September, 1995.
And in June, 1987, an international meeting was held in Washington, D.C., for the purpose of establishing more and better means of coping with the worldwide scourge called "AIDS." This was the third of a series of such assemblages, seeking to deal with but one of so many problems that continue to beset all of us--regardless of nationality or political affiliation. By August, 1994, the seventh of such conferences was held, this time in Japan. The bad news was that, by this time it was estimated that more than seventeen million people around the world were infected with HIV. It is things like this that ought prompt the world to "go to war" to defeat. Would funneling some of the money spent on bigger and better bombs and bombers into more research in, and wider availability of medications for, tragedies of this nature be of help? The answer is obvious.
In March, 1995, a conference called the World Summit on Social Development met in Copenhagen. There, a group of world leaders discussed means to alleviate a number of worldwide social ills, including poverty, unemployment, and social integration.
Sunday, June 24, 2012
PAST EFFORTS AT JOINDER
In 1992, a compact establishing a North American Free Trade Area (now referred to as "NAFTA") was signed by Canada, Mexico, and the United States. Its purpose was freer movement of goods, services, and investment (but not people) across these nations' respective borders. United States President Clinton envisioned the birth of a new global economic relationship, whereby more freedom of trade and closer ties would assist the economies of all. By 1994, it was plain that the NAFTA program had greatly boosted North American commerce. Therefore, in December of that year, President Clinton peoposed to expand NAFTA to the entire hemisphere. In this regard, a number of national governments agreed to begin negotiations aimed at forming an entity to be known as the Free Trade Area of the Americas by 2005. 850 million people would be the recipients of economic benefit from such an entity.
During the same peiod, on the other side of the world, Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam proclaimed a common market, in 1994, calling it the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. That same year, eighteen European countries, including France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom, created a common market known as the European Economic Area.
The aforesaid GATTwas formally given a new identity in 1995, and was thenceforth known as the World Trade Organization. Its responsibilities were enlarged, and it became a "full-fledged international organization."
As can be readily concluded from the foregoing, associations, negotiations, and agreements of this nature have not been exclusively by or among the larger nation-states. Witness, as a further example, how a number of nations within the Pacific Rim area recently formed an economic alliance known as the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation, agreeing to work toward the establishment of a free trade zone in their region by the year 2020.
A further example of this may be derived from French President Chirac's invitation, in 2003, to leaders from twelve less developed states lying far and wide within our world, to a meeting of the
"G-8" (being a conference scheduled to be attended by the world's eight largest industrial nations) on June 1st of that year, in Evian, France. President Chirac desired to demonstrate to the leaders of these twelve less economically developed countries how prosperity in the currently more industrialized West actually hinges upon their simultaneous economic cooperation as well.
On January 25, 2003, a World Economic Forum opened in Davos, Switzerland. It was attended by twenty or so presidents and prime ministers, as well as a large number of other senior government officials and top executives from around the world. This once again underscores the current trend toward meetings seeking worldwide participationfor the purpose of discussing economic issues, and solving problems related thereto.
Global capitalism has produced a great deal of benefit in many parts of the world. It is reported that per capita income, as averaged on a worldwide basis, has tripled during the last thirty five years. Moreover, technology and its attendant improvements are said to have reached into every city, village, and settlement across the globe, generally decreasing infant mortality and increasing life expectancy. Literacy has also increased as a result of this new worldwide orientation that society has adopted. However, there still remains a great deal to be done. The "tripling" of income referred to above has not benefitted everyone. Economic globalization has as yet failed to actually reduce poverty, or increase incomes or economic equality, among the poorest members of our society. And as the rich among us continue to become wealthier, the poor in many places remain poverty-stricken, sick, and starving.
It is hoped that one day, in a world without borders, there will be complete free movement of goods from anywhere to anywhere. Of course, this could not happen without universal economic and currency systems as well, whereby prices would not vary (except for added costs related to shipping, storage, etc.); and the wages of all who produced these goods would likewise be free from the great variations that exist in our world today--due, at least in major part, to these very price variations herein rewferred to. (I intend to speak later concerning an international economy and currency.)
During the same peiod, on the other side of the world, Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam proclaimed a common market, in 1994, calling it the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. That same year, eighteen European countries, including France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom, created a common market known as the European Economic Area.
The aforesaid GATTwas formally given a new identity in 1995, and was thenceforth known as the World Trade Organization. Its responsibilities were enlarged, and it became a "full-fledged international organization."
As can be readily concluded from the foregoing, associations, negotiations, and agreements of this nature have not been exclusively by or among the larger nation-states. Witness, as a further example, how a number of nations within the Pacific Rim area recently formed an economic alliance known as the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation, agreeing to work toward the establishment of a free trade zone in their region by the year 2020.
A further example of this may be derived from French President Chirac's invitation, in 2003, to leaders from twelve less developed states lying far and wide within our world, to a meeting of the
"G-8" (being a conference scheduled to be attended by the world's eight largest industrial nations) on June 1st of that year, in Evian, France. President Chirac desired to demonstrate to the leaders of these twelve less economically developed countries how prosperity in the currently more industrialized West actually hinges upon their simultaneous economic cooperation as well.
On January 25, 2003, a World Economic Forum opened in Davos, Switzerland. It was attended by twenty or so presidents and prime ministers, as well as a large number of other senior government officials and top executives from around the world. This once again underscores the current trend toward meetings seeking worldwide participationfor the purpose of discussing economic issues, and solving problems related thereto.
Global capitalism has produced a great deal of benefit in many parts of the world. It is reported that per capita income, as averaged on a worldwide basis, has tripled during the last thirty five years. Moreover, technology and its attendant improvements are said to have reached into every city, village, and settlement across the globe, generally decreasing infant mortality and increasing life expectancy. Literacy has also increased as a result of this new worldwide orientation that society has adopted. However, there still remains a great deal to be done. The "tripling" of income referred to above has not benefitted everyone. Economic globalization has as yet failed to actually reduce poverty, or increase incomes or economic equality, among the poorest members of our society. And as the rich among us continue to become wealthier, the poor in many places remain poverty-stricken, sick, and starving.
It is hoped that one day, in a world without borders, there will be complete free movement of goods from anywhere to anywhere. Of course, this could not happen without universal economic and currency systems as well, whereby prices would not vary (except for added costs related to shipping, storage, etc.); and the wages of all who produced these goods would likewise be free from the great variations that exist in our world today--due, at least in major part, to these very price variations herein rewferred to. (I intend to speak later concerning an international economy and currency.)
Saturday, June 23, 2012
PAST EFFORTS AT JOINDER
It should be mentioned that subsequent criticisms have been leveled against some of these aforesaid institutions. These include charges thsat funds were made available to nations in need subject to dictated conditions, such as cutting deficits, privatization of state-owned industries, trade liberalization, and market deregulation; and that they hereby represent imposition of the interests and will of the most advanced industrial nations upon the developing segments of the world. Most of these criticisms seem to arise from the fact that the world of that time was (and continues to be) divided into national factions--so that, instead of being perceived as efforts on the part of some wealthier relatives to come to the aid of poorer members of the same family, the perception has become one of "rich family A" imposing undue demands upon, or taking advantage of, "poor family B," in the interest of promoting economic stability in the "neighborhood."
Europe's progress toward postwar unity was fundamentally motivated by political purpose. However, as has been related above, the means that were primarily resorted to in order to accomplish this were predominantly economic in nature.
The period following the tragedy of World War II was followed by an active season of countries joining together to promote united efforts for common goals. Again, this appears to have been particularly true regarding economic objectives. As early as 1944, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg (commonly referred to as the "Benelux countries") formed a customs union. In 1945, twenty one Arab states plus the Palestine Liberation Organization formed the Arab League, whose purpose was the promotion of closer political and economic relations among its members. Its headquarters was in Cairo.
In April of 1947, representatives from twenty three nations met in Geneva to negotiate reductions in their respective tariffs. By October of the same year, an agreement had been reached; and by the following year, that resultant agreement, called the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ("GATT") was executed. This body of nations came to be called the World Trade Organization ("WTO"). It presently consists of 120 countries. Although the aforesaid agreement bound all members to an equal degree, an "opting out" article (Article XX) gave individua;l member states the opportunity to ignore it, or to adopt measures in contravention thereof, where such seemed necessary for the protection of public morals within the state, the lives or well-being of its people, or the protection of the wild life or natural resources of said country.
Originating in 1948, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development was formed by twenty European nations plus the United States and Canada, to help administer the Marshall Plan. It subsequently grew to thirty two members, including five additional European countries, plus Australia, Japan, Korea, Mexico, and New Zealand. It continues to function, as a promoter of economic growth and expansion, and of extended international trade and prosperity.
In 1951, another cooperative effort among European nations created further advantage to all of them. In March of that year, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany signed a pact based upon a proposal originally put forth in 1950 by France's Foreign Minister Robert Schuman and economist Jean Monnet, whereby their coal and steel industries were put under an international supervisory authority. Thus was born the European Coal and Steel Community. Customs duties and quotas were eliminated regarding such commodities imported or exported by these countries; and production was placed under the decision-making functions of a common High Authority. This example of international economic collaboration, and the sense of cooperation that it engendered, produced increased prosperity for its members, and served well to reduce the possibility of war among all since that time. Application of this kind of organization, and such cooperative efforts throughout the world, seem capable of rendering similar benefit to all of mankind.
In the nineteen-fifties, Austria, Britain, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland formed what would be entitled the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). It abolished tariffs as between the aforesaid members; but non-members were still required to pay such duties, in varying amounts as such of the respective members should choose to levy. This association bore similarity to, and has been described as a rival of, the European Common Market (which will be discussed hereafter in connection with the European Economic Community); except that, as you will note, the tariffs to outsiders which Common Market members imposed upon non-members was uniform by all and for all, having been arrived at via prior agreement among that organization's constituency; while EFTA constituents were priveleged to individually decide the amounts thereof.
In 1961, United States President John F. Kennedy initiated a plan to improve economic conditions in Latin America. The result was an international group calling itself the Alliance for Progress, which met for the first time in Punta del Este, Uruguay in August of that year. This alliance constituted another attempt at economic cooperation among a group of independent nations. It eventually failed, however, due to the governments of indevidual member nations' reluctance to initiate necessary reforms, as well as inadequate funding.
During the next year, a group of sixteen African nations joined together to found an African Common Market. Its constituent states pledged to work toward the free movement of goods as well as people among its members. Later, in 1980, the Lagos Plan of Action, authored by the group of nations known as the Organization of African Unity, envisaged the creation of a single pan-African common market to be in existence by the year 2000. In 2002, this entity was subsequently replaced by the fifty two member African Union, having a goal of further political and economic integration within Africa.
The nations of the Carribean likewise began to adopt similar steps during the 1960s. A free trade area was proclaimed by a group of Carribean nations in 1968. Known as "CARIFTA," its aim was the prevention of fragmentation within the West Indian region following the period of decolonization which had taken place shortly before.
Meanwhile, several South American nations resumed attempts to forge an entity for economic unification. Thus, Bolivia, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela joined together, in 1969, to establish an economic union to be known as the Andean Common Market. Among its stated goals were trade liberalization, joint industrial planning, and the harmonization of economic policies.
In 1974, the United States and Canada, together with the twenty two European nations plus Australia, Japan, and New Zealand (which together composed the aforedescribed Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development), formed the "International Energy Agency." Its endeavors included the creation of a system for sharing oil among its members during shortages, as well as efforts to promote cooperation between the oil-producing and oil-consuming nations of our world.
A good deal of further international meeting activity took place in 1977. In April of that year, 107 nations held talks in Geneva pertaining to the establishment of a massive fund whose purpose would be the stabilization of commodity prices--especially oil. These talks unfortunately ended in failure. Notwithstanding, the attempts appear to have spawned several smaller, but more successful, efforts to ease the global economic challenges of those years. Britain, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the United States met in London in May of that year to discuss the recession that was then taking its economic toll around the world. And by August, fourteen nations, including the United States, committed themselves to loan ten billion dollars to the poverty-stricken nations who were suffering most due to the ongoing oil crisis.
As time moved on, production of, and demand for, oil continued to play a major role in world affairs. Conscious of this, the Persian Gulf States of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates met together in 1981 to form the Gulf Cooperation Council.
In 1986, further meetings and negotiations regarding the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade were begun in Punta del Este, Uruguay. These conferences progressed until 1993; when, at a final meeting at Marrakeech, Morocco, 117 countries reached agreement to support a sweeping policy of trade liberalization. International protectionist measures, as well as agricultural subsidies, were reduced or abolished. We are told that this resulted in vastly expanded trade activity throughout the world, and consequent addition of billions of dollars annually to the global economy (one estimate puts it at $274 billion by 2004). But, unfortunately, we are further advised that these benefits basically went to industrial nations (i.e., 65 to 85 percent thereof); while weaker, more backward, nations (e.g., in Africa) would actually lose due to the consequent loss of advantaged access to their export markets.
It should be noted here that this would not happen in a unified world; where there would be no "industrial nations" or "weaker, more backward" nations. Instead, such benefits as should come to pass as a result of any and all newly instituted economic programs would redound to the benefit of everyone.
Also undertaken at this "Uruguay Round" were efforts to formulate a universal code to regulate the new phenomena of multi-mational corporations and foreign direct investment. It was particularly sought to enable Europe to develop such entities, so as to emulate and complement the activities of their American and Japanese counterparts.
Another accomplishment of these Uruguay conferences was the strengthening of intellectual property rights on a worldwide level. In general, this can be considered to be a good thing. But a more unfavorable result was that it gave more power to American and European drug manufacturers to stop similar companies in other, less developed, parts of the world from copying formulae, whereby life-saving medicines would be less available, or unavailable, throughout the world at affordable prices. We are told that, due to this, thousands who could no longer afford the higher prices charged by the American and European companies were "effectively condemned to death." This too could not happen in a unified world, by reason of the fact that a single worldwide economy would preclude the possibility of, or the need for, drastic price differences in different parts of the world.
During these same years, a group of Latin American nations, including Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, together with associate members Bolivia and Chile, formed an entity which was called "Mercosur." It comprised an association of these countries, who consented to be bound by a mutually beneficial international trade agreement. Having begun in 1991, subsequent meetings led to an enlargement thereof into a South America Free Trade Area, consisting of the integration of a number of other regional trade pacts into the aforesaid Mercosur agreement and organization.
Europe's progress toward postwar unity was fundamentally motivated by political purpose. However, as has been related above, the means that were primarily resorted to in order to accomplish this were predominantly economic in nature.
The period following the tragedy of World War II was followed by an active season of countries joining together to promote united efforts for common goals. Again, this appears to have been particularly true regarding economic objectives. As early as 1944, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg (commonly referred to as the "Benelux countries") formed a customs union. In 1945, twenty one Arab states plus the Palestine Liberation Organization formed the Arab League, whose purpose was the promotion of closer political and economic relations among its members. Its headquarters was in Cairo.
In April of 1947, representatives from twenty three nations met in Geneva to negotiate reductions in their respective tariffs. By October of the same year, an agreement had been reached; and by the following year, that resultant agreement, called the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ("GATT") was executed. This body of nations came to be called the World Trade Organization ("WTO"). It presently consists of 120 countries. Although the aforesaid agreement bound all members to an equal degree, an "opting out" article (Article XX) gave individua;l member states the opportunity to ignore it, or to adopt measures in contravention thereof, where such seemed necessary for the protection of public morals within the state, the lives or well-being of its people, or the protection of the wild life or natural resources of said country.
Originating in 1948, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development was formed by twenty European nations plus the United States and Canada, to help administer the Marshall Plan. It subsequently grew to thirty two members, including five additional European countries, plus Australia, Japan, Korea, Mexico, and New Zealand. It continues to function, as a promoter of economic growth and expansion, and of extended international trade and prosperity.
In 1951, another cooperative effort among European nations created further advantage to all of them. In March of that year, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany signed a pact based upon a proposal originally put forth in 1950 by France's Foreign Minister Robert Schuman and economist Jean Monnet, whereby their coal and steel industries were put under an international supervisory authority. Thus was born the European Coal and Steel Community. Customs duties and quotas were eliminated regarding such commodities imported or exported by these countries; and production was placed under the decision-making functions of a common High Authority. This example of international economic collaboration, and the sense of cooperation that it engendered, produced increased prosperity for its members, and served well to reduce the possibility of war among all since that time. Application of this kind of organization, and such cooperative efforts throughout the world, seem capable of rendering similar benefit to all of mankind.
In the nineteen-fifties, Austria, Britain, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland formed what would be entitled the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). It abolished tariffs as between the aforesaid members; but non-members were still required to pay such duties, in varying amounts as such of the respective members should choose to levy. This association bore similarity to, and has been described as a rival of, the European Common Market (which will be discussed hereafter in connection with the European Economic Community); except that, as you will note, the tariffs to outsiders which Common Market members imposed upon non-members was uniform by all and for all, having been arrived at via prior agreement among that organization's constituency; while EFTA constituents were priveleged to individually decide the amounts thereof.
In 1961, United States President John F. Kennedy initiated a plan to improve economic conditions in Latin America. The result was an international group calling itself the Alliance for Progress, which met for the first time in Punta del Este, Uruguay in August of that year. This alliance constituted another attempt at economic cooperation among a group of independent nations. It eventually failed, however, due to the governments of indevidual member nations' reluctance to initiate necessary reforms, as well as inadequate funding.
During the next year, a group of sixteen African nations joined together to found an African Common Market. Its constituent states pledged to work toward the free movement of goods as well as people among its members. Later, in 1980, the Lagos Plan of Action, authored by the group of nations known as the Organization of African Unity, envisaged the creation of a single pan-African common market to be in existence by the year 2000. In 2002, this entity was subsequently replaced by the fifty two member African Union, having a goal of further political and economic integration within Africa.
The nations of the Carribean likewise began to adopt similar steps during the 1960s. A free trade area was proclaimed by a group of Carribean nations in 1968. Known as "CARIFTA," its aim was the prevention of fragmentation within the West Indian region following the period of decolonization which had taken place shortly before.
Meanwhile, several South American nations resumed attempts to forge an entity for economic unification. Thus, Bolivia, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela joined together, in 1969, to establish an economic union to be known as the Andean Common Market. Among its stated goals were trade liberalization, joint industrial planning, and the harmonization of economic policies.
In 1974, the United States and Canada, together with the twenty two European nations plus Australia, Japan, and New Zealand (which together composed the aforedescribed Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development), formed the "International Energy Agency." Its endeavors included the creation of a system for sharing oil among its members during shortages, as well as efforts to promote cooperation between the oil-producing and oil-consuming nations of our world.
A good deal of further international meeting activity took place in 1977. In April of that year, 107 nations held talks in Geneva pertaining to the establishment of a massive fund whose purpose would be the stabilization of commodity prices--especially oil. These talks unfortunately ended in failure. Notwithstanding, the attempts appear to have spawned several smaller, but more successful, efforts to ease the global economic challenges of those years. Britain, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the United States met in London in May of that year to discuss the recession that was then taking its economic toll around the world. And by August, fourteen nations, including the United States, committed themselves to loan ten billion dollars to the poverty-stricken nations who were suffering most due to the ongoing oil crisis.
As time moved on, production of, and demand for, oil continued to play a major role in world affairs. Conscious of this, the Persian Gulf States of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates met together in 1981 to form the Gulf Cooperation Council.
In 1986, further meetings and negotiations regarding the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade were begun in Punta del Este, Uruguay. These conferences progressed until 1993; when, at a final meeting at Marrakeech, Morocco, 117 countries reached agreement to support a sweeping policy of trade liberalization. International protectionist measures, as well as agricultural subsidies, were reduced or abolished. We are told that this resulted in vastly expanded trade activity throughout the world, and consequent addition of billions of dollars annually to the global economy (one estimate puts it at $274 billion by 2004). But, unfortunately, we are further advised that these benefits basically went to industrial nations (i.e., 65 to 85 percent thereof); while weaker, more backward, nations (e.g., in Africa) would actually lose due to the consequent loss of advantaged access to their export markets.
It should be noted here that this would not happen in a unified world; where there would be no "industrial nations" or "weaker, more backward" nations. Instead, such benefits as should come to pass as a result of any and all newly instituted economic programs would redound to the benefit of everyone.
Also undertaken at this "Uruguay Round" were efforts to formulate a universal code to regulate the new phenomena of multi-mational corporations and foreign direct investment. It was particularly sought to enable Europe to develop such entities, so as to emulate and complement the activities of their American and Japanese counterparts.
Another accomplishment of these Uruguay conferences was the strengthening of intellectual property rights on a worldwide level. In general, this can be considered to be a good thing. But a more unfavorable result was that it gave more power to American and European drug manufacturers to stop similar companies in other, less developed, parts of the world from copying formulae, whereby life-saving medicines would be less available, or unavailable, throughout the world at affordable prices. We are told that, due to this, thousands who could no longer afford the higher prices charged by the American and European companies were "effectively condemned to death." This too could not happen in a unified world, by reason of the fact that a single worldwide economy would preclude the possibility of, or the need for, drastic price differences in different parts of the world.
During these same years, a group of Latin American nations, including Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, together with associate members Bolivia and Chile, formed an entity which was called "Mercosur." It comprised an association of these countries, who consented to be bound by a mutually beneficial international trade agreement. Having begun in 1991, subsequent meetings led to an enlargement thereof into a South America Free Trade Area, consisting of the integration of a number of other regional trade pacts into the aforesaid Mercosur agreement and organization.
Friday, June 22, 2012
PAST EFFORTS AT JO0INDER
As early as 1931, Aristide Briand, French Foreign Minister, proposed the formation of a European customs union. In 1932, a convention held at Oslo, Norway, resulted in the establishment of a process for economic cooperation among Belgium, the Netherlands, and the Scandinavian countries.
Meanwhile, in 1930, a Bank for International Settlements had been founded, to act as agent in the growing quantity of international financial transactions. It continues to so function today. Its headquarters are in Basel, Switzerland; and its activities are worldwide in nature and scope.
These beginnings were interrupted by World War II. But then, in 1944, as the end of hostilities began to appear on the horizon, forty four economists from the United States and Europe met at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, and shaped the concepts behind the founding of the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (to be later known as the World Bank). The official birth date for these economic bodies was the same as the date of ratification of the Bretton Woods Agreement (which restored the equivalent of the pre-1914 gold standard) by representatives from twenty eight nations: December 27, 1945. One of its earliest acts was the making of a $250 million reconstruction loan to the French government, in May of 1947. The Bank was, in actuality, an instrument to promote global collective action in the interest of worldwide economic stability--much as the rationale behind the United Nations would be toward the promotion of global collective action in the interest of worldwide political stability.
At war's end, a plan was also conceived by General George Marshall of the U.S., for the rendering of economic assistance to all of the nations and people of Europe who had sustained physical and economic devastation as a result of the recent warfare. This plan, which came to be known as the Marshall Plan, was assisted in its implementation by these aforesaid international institutions. The basic overall goal was to build a postwar economy in Europe wherein, it was hoped, the harms and dangers of economic nationalism, trade restrictions, and currency instability would be forever banished. The ideal was to restore the free flow of trade and currency stabilization which all of Europe was considered to have enjoyed prior to the start of the First World War in 1914. It was anticipated that most, if not all, of the European nations involved would agree among themselves as to what was needed; and that assistance would then be extended in accordance therewith. This ingenious plan was successful and effective, and later hailed as having had a"major impact on European economic recovery and expansion." (Peter Singer, One World).
The World Bank's intended function in connection with this is of particular note in regard to the concept of a unified world; for one of its roles was that of a "medium for international risk-sharing," to foster the making of loans for the purpose of reconstruction and development throughout the world following the devastating conflict that was World War II. It did this by means of long-term advances to various governments; as well as via issuance of guarantees for loans made for that purpose by private banks.
Meanwhile, in 1930, a Bank for International Settlements had been founded, to act as agent in the growing quantity of international financial transactions. It continues to so function today. Its headquarters are in Basel, Switzerland; and its activities are worldwide in nature and scope.
These beginnings were interrupted by World War II. But then, in 1944, as the end of hostilities began to appear on the horizon, forty four economists from the United States and Europe met at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, and shaped the concepts behind the founding of the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (to be later known as the World Bank). The official birth date for these economic bodies was the same as the date of ratification of the Bretton Woods Agreement (which restored the equivalent of the pre-1914 gold standard) by representatives from twenty eight nations: December 27, 1945. One of its earliest acts was the making of a $250 million reconstruction loan to the French government, in May of 1947. The Bank was, in actuality, an instrument to promote global collective action in the interest of worldwide economic stability--much as the rationale behind the United Nations would be toward the promotion of global collective action in the interest of worldwide political stability.
At war's end, a plan was also conceived by General George Marshall of the U.S., for the rendering of economic assistance to all of the nations and people of Europe who had sustained physical and economic devastation as a result of the recent warfare. This plan, which came to be known as the Marshall Plan, was assisted in its implementation by these aforesaid international institutions. The basic overall goal was to build a postwar economy in Europe wherein, it was hoped, the harms and dangers of economic nationalism, trade restrictions, and currency instability would be forever banished. The ideal was to restore the free flow of trade and currency stabilization which all of Europe was considered to have enjoyed prior to the start of the First World War in 1914. It was anticipated that most, if not all, of the European nations involved would agree among themselves as to what was needed; and that assistance would then be extended in accordance therewith. This ingenious plan was successful and effective, and later hailed as having had a"major impact on European economic recovery and expansion." (Peter Singer, One World).
The World Bank's intended function in connection with this is of particular note in regard to the concept of a unified world; for one of its roles was that of a "medium for international risk-sharing," to foster the making of loans for the purpose of reconstruction and development throughout the world following the devastating conflict that was World War II. It did this by means of long-term advances to various governments; as well as via issuance of guarantees for loans made for that purpose by private banks.
Thursday, June 21, 2012
PAST EFFORTS AT JOINDER
ECONOMIC
Mankind's proclivity toward, and consequent steps that are leading to the achievement of, globalization and unification have been a factor in history for many years. In early times, these attempts were obviously not conscious efforts to attain such specific results; but the net effects nevertheless bore resemblance to what would later emerge as society's more conscious steps toward unification. These earlier efforts frequently took place throughout our world in ways that were primarily economic in orientation and effect.
As has been proposed earlier, the colonial endeavors exercised by numerous countries during the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries, crossing oceans and borders as they did, though motivated by desires for wealth and conquest, actually at the same time constitute an early form of international joinder and consolidation.
Contemporaneously in Europe during this period, the Commercial Revolution spawned a capitalist economy in many countries, wherein focus shifted from town-oriented to nation-oriented concerns and activities. As a subsequent step, these commercial nations themselves became mutually involved and associated economically, as people within the seperate countries did more and more business with each other. As Montesquieu observed in his Spirit of the Laws, when nations thus became "reciprocally dependent...their union is founded on their mutual necessities." Thus, on account of these necessities, people of numerous nations developed more and closer ties and relationships, business and otherwise, as time marched forward.
During this era, and specifically during the eighteenth century, the age which we refer to as the Enlightenment arose in Europe. Here a group of thinkers who came to be called "political economists" looked to the state as a regulatory and enforcing factor in assistance of the economic climate. But they were by no means "nationalists." Rather, they have been labeled "universalists," who looked to the state to rise above local regulation, promote law and order, maintain the sanctity of contracts, and preserve a free and open market. In a phrase, they "believed in the unity of mankind under a natural law of right and reason." (Palmer and Colton, A History of the Modern World)
A quintessential illustration of this is found in the description given by said historians Palmer and Colton of the year 1870, which they portrays as a time of unprecedented economic world unity. They speak of a "true world market," wherein "goods, services, money, capital, [and] people moved back and forth almost without regard to national boundaries." Moreover, during this time, we are told, the purchase and sale of goods took place at a set of "uniform world prices." ( Palmer and Colton, op. cit.,)
Then, further evidences of unity began to appear. In the early part of the twentieth century, business mergers became the order of the day. Many companies in the same field formed combinations for the purpose of avoiding wasteful and harmful competition. Workers who were employees of these companies also began to organize and to bargain as a group with their employers. Similar activities were exhibited on the part of their agricultural counterparts as well; as the turn of the century witnessed the formation of cooperatives among farmers, providing advantages of sharing certain expenses and eliminating the need for midedlemen.
With economic activity becoming an economic phenomenon and endeavor, the problems connected with such economic pursuits also began to exhibit themselves on a global scale as well. Thus, by reason of one such concern, an international conference was held in Paris in September of 1910 to deal with the growing challenge of worldwide unemployment. This represented an early example of an international forum being convened for the purpose of addressing something perceived to be an international economic problem.
In October, 1927, the New York Stock Exchange expanded its functions to become a world stock exchange. Corporate stocks traded on Wall Street bore worldwide implication and effect, constituting but another extension of man's business enterprise onto an international stage.
Although Europe was long divided into numerous poolitical subdivisions, nation-states, factional areas within nations, and factional areas that straddled national boundary lines, that which would be called "European civilization" was, and is still, somewhat considered to constitute a unity. Thus, Europeans appear to view themselves as having more in common with, than contrast to, other Europeans. In particular, there has from an early day been a consciousness of an economic unity within Europe and among its inhabitants. This feeling has grown apparently stronger over rece
nt decades, culminating in the beginnings of a European Economic Community (whose development will be traced later).
Mankind's proclivity toward, and consequent steps that are leading to the achievement of, globalization and unification have been a factor in history for many years. In early times, these attempts were obviously not conscious efforts to attain such specific results; but the net effects nevertheless bore resemblance to what would later emerge as society's more conscious steps toward unification. These earlier efforts frequently took place throughout our world in ways that were primarily economic in orientation and effect.
As has been proposed earlier, the colonial endeavors exercised by numerous countries during the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries, crossing oceans and borders as they did, though motivated by desires for wealth and conquest, actually at the same time constitute an early form of international joinder and consolidation.
Contemporaneously in Europe during this period, the Commercial Revolution spawned a capitalist economy in many countries, wherein focus shifted from town-oriented to nation-oriented concerns and activities. As a subsequent step, these commercial nations themselves became mutually involved and associated economically, as people within the seperate countries did more and more business with each other. As Montesquieu observed in his Spirit of the Laws, when nations thus became "reciprocally dependent...their union is founded on their mutual necessities." Thus, on account of these necessities, people of numerous nations developed more and closer ties and relationships, business and otherwise, as time marched forward.
During this era, and specifically during the eighteenth century, the age which we refer to as the Enlightenment arose in Europe. Here a group of thinkers who came to be called "political economists" looked to the state as a regulatory and enforcing factor in assistance of the economic climate. But they were by no means "nationalists." Rather, they have been labeled "universalists," who looked to the state to rise above local regulation, promote law and order, maintain the sanctity of contracts, and preserve a free and open market. In a phrase, they "believed in the unity of mankind under a natural law of right and reason." (Palmer and Colton, A History of the Modern World)
A quintessential illustration of this is found in the description given by said historians Palmer and Colton of the year 1870, which they portrays as a time of unprecedented economic world unity. They speak of a "true world market," wherein "goods, services, money, capital, [and] people moved back and forth almost without regard to national boundaries." Moreover, during this time, we are told, the purchase and sale of goods took place at a set of "uniform world prices." ( Palmer and Colton, op. cit.,)
Then, further evidences of unity began to appear. In the early part of the twentieth century, business mergers became the order of the day. Many companies in the same field formed combinations for the purpose of avoiding wasteful and harmful competition. Workers who were employees of these companies also began to organize and to bargain as a group with their employers. Similar activities were exhibited on the part of their agricultural counterparts as well; as the turn of the century witnessed the formation of cooperatives among farmers, providing advantages of sharing certain expenses and eliminating the need for midedlemen.
With economic activity becoming an economic phenomenon and endeavor, the problems connected with such economic pursuits also began to exhibit themselves on a global scale as well. Thus, by reason of one such concern, an international conference was held in Paris in September of 1910 to deal with the growing challenge of worldwide unemployment. This represented an early example of an international forum being convened for the purpose of addressing something perceived to be an international economic problem.
In October, 1927, the New York Stock Exchange expanded its functions to become a world stock exchange. Corporate stocks traded on Wall Street bore worldwide implication and effect, constituting but another extension of man's business enterprise onto an international stage.
Although Europe was long divided into numerous poolitical subdivisions, nation-states, factional areas within nations, and factional areas that straddled national boundary lines, that which would be called "European civilization" was, and is still, somewhat considered to constitute a unity. Thus, Europeans appear to view themselves as having more in common with, than contrast to, other Europeans. In particular, there has from an early day been a consciousness of an economic unity within Europe and among its inhabitants. This feeling has grown apparently stronger over rece
nt decades, culminating in the beginnings of a European Economic Community (whose development will be traced later).
Thursday, May 24, 2012
Wednesday, April 18, 2012
A DECLARATION OF MY PURPOSE AND INTENT
I wish to one day witness a transformation of the current complex web of competition, hostiloity, and need that constitutes our world today, into a united people, freely functioning under an objectively sensible, logical and beneficent worldwide guiding body, who shall implement such resources as are at man's disposal to most reasonably and beneficially deal with such needs, difficulties, conditions and occurrences as should exist or arise.
I am not speaking on behalf of any religious sect or belief.
It would be descriptively appropriate to label that which I seek as a "new world order"--but any of today's resultant stereotypes do in no way apply.
Needless to say, I am not the "antichrist," nor a minion of any suchg fantasy. Nor am I acting on behalf of a super-rich or super-powerful individual or group seeking to control mankind or the world.
I am not a socialist or a communist.
I seek only benefit to, and the advancement of, civilization, mankind, life, and the world.
I am not speaking on behalf of any religious sect or belief.
It would be descriptively appropriate to label that which I seek as a "new world order"--but any of today's resultant stereotypes do in no way apply.
Needless to say, I am not the "antichrist," nor a minion of any suchg fantasy. Nor am I acting on behalf of a super-rich or super-powerful individual or group seeking to control mankind or the world.
I am not a socialist or a communist.
I seek only benefit to, and the advancement of, civilization, mankind, life, and the world.
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